The article is dedicated to the protagonist of an important episode of the 1^st Punic War between Rome and Carthage (264-241 BC) - The Battle of Tunis (or The Battle of the Bagradas River, 255 BC). Its result affected the course of the war for several years although it did not change its outcome. In the Battle of Tunis the opposing armies were approximately commensurate (the Carthaginians had 12 000 infantry, 4 000 cavalry and 100 war elephants against the Romans with 15 000 infantry and 500 cavalry), but the Roman army was encircled and almost annihilated, its commander was taken captive, thus saving the city of Carthage. The architect of this spectacular victory was Spartan mercenary general named Xanthippus; in a way, his triumph at Tunis can be considered as an anticipation of the great victory of Hannibal at Cannae (216 BC). Xanthippus' life, excluding his service in Africa, remains virtually unknown. Practically the only important detail concerning his early biography, mentioned by the Greek historian Polybius, regards his "Laconic education" - meaning he was raised in the Spartan martial way of Classical times. Nevertheless, Xanthippus obviously could not get the military skills he had demonstrated at Tunis (mainly concerning elephantry) via traditional Spartan training; presumably, earlier he had served in some Hellenistic army (Epirote, Seleucid, or Ptolemaic). In other words, Xanthippus was "an untypical Spartiate", one of those who were forced to take up a mercenary profession due to long-lasting crisis in Sparta. The author analyses Xanthippus' tactical decisions made at Tunis in view of Hellenistic warfare (especially combat use of war elephants) to specify whether his tactics were typical or unique.

The article actualizes the problem of interaction between the British mission, the Volunteer Army and the government of the Mountain Republic in 1919-1920. Using published and archival sources the author reveals discrepancy between the aims of London in the Caucasus, the standpoint stated at the peace conference in Paris, and the policy of the British mission and the leadership of the Volunteer Army in the North Caucasus. For the first time, the North Caucasian region and the Mountain Republic are considered in the context of international relations that reveals different ideas about the future of the region on the part of the British authorities, the leadership of the Volunteer Army, and the representatives of the mountain government. Based on these ideas, a real policy was implemented. The novelty of the study is in the view of the situation in the North Caucasus from geopolitical interests of London, which saw in it the extension of its Middle East policy. If we consider the situation within only the Greater Caucasus, we will notice that greater interest was shown precisely in the South Caucasus; the northern part played an auxiliary role. Common and specific features were identified in the positions of the leadership of the Armed Forces of the Southern Russia and the Russian Political Council. The Russian Political Council viewed the Greater Caucasus as part of a united and integral Russia. Sergei Sazonov, the former imperial foreign minister, saw no chance of success in gaining independence for the Caucasian republics. A. I. Denikin had to act in specific circumstances and at that moment, he could not afford such military activity in the South Caucasus, as in the North Caucasus. For the British mission in Caucasus, the Mountain Republic was not a priority, the issue of its recognition was of little interest to them. The mission was military and they were involved in politics out of necessity, initially such a task was not set.

The article analyzes the history of the Spanish conquest of the Tarascan Indians of Michoacan, whose territory was located near the Western borders of the strongest Aztec state in ancient Mexico. The work notes that until the arrival of the Spanish conquerors the Tarascans stubbornly resisted the Aztecs and were in a state of hostility with them. The author notes some features of the Spanish conquest of this part of pre-colonial Mexico. While the history of the Aztec conquest is known for persistent resistance to the conquistadors, the submission of the Tarascans was relatively peaceful. This was facilitated by the lack of agreement among the natives in the fight against the conquerors: the Tarascans did not agree to create a military Alliance with the Aztecs, suspecting them of treachery. The article emphasizes that the policy and practice of intimidation by H. Cortez and his entourage also had an impact. The last pre-Hispanic Tarascan ruler, Tangahoan, after some hesitation, recognized the authority of the Spanish king and was baptized in 1525. However, Tangahoan was executed (burned at the stake) on February 14, 1530, after failing to fulfill another demand of the official Royal official and conqueror N. de Guzman regarding the tribute. The article highlights the specifics of the policy of the Spanish conquerors in relation to the Tarascans. As the conquistadors peacefully recognized their authority, the rulers of Michoacan retained their rights for almost half a century. Only since 1565, when he died the younger son Tangahoan and the last ruler of the Tarascan Antonio Huitzimengari begins the colonial history of Michoacаn. The author emphasizes the importance of using the system of community structures of the Tarascans in the organization of local government by the Spaniards of the conquered Indians. The Tarascans took part in the military campaigns of the Spaniards, the suppression of uprisings. The descendants of their ancient elite held command positions in the organization of tribute collection, working groups for the implementation of the first construction projects of the colonizers. The article briefly notes the features of the Tarascan Christianization associated with the personality of Bishop V. de Quiroga (died 1565), who tried to embody the ideas of Th. More in Michoacan and is deeply revered by the Tarascans up to the present day as the "father of the people".

The authors of the article reveal the value and political orientation of the work of historians of the Cossack emigration on the development of the Don and Kuban regions in the 1920s. The topic is relevant for rethinking the features of the New economic policy of 1921-1929 in the South of Russia, to clarify the discourse of publications of historians of the Cossacks' abroad of the first generation. The novelty of the research consists in comparing the level of awareness and assessments of NEP in the Cossack, socialist and liberal historical traditions abroad, introducing a number of publications in the periodical press of the 1920s into scientific circulation. The article examines such important aspects of the topic as the assessment of the economic state of the Don and Kuban, class and class relations, the Bolshevik regime and its political and ideological campaigns in the Cossack regions, and everyday life. The organizational structure of public associations, archival and scientific institutions of the Cossacks abroad, which influenced the selection and orientation of historical information, is clarified. Conclusions on the closeness of the algorithms of analysis and political focus of the work of historians of the Cossack abroad (P. L. Makarenko, F. A. Scherbina, S. G. Svatikov), Russian socialist historians (S. S. Maslov, S. O. Portugeis) and members of the liberal direction (P. N. Milyukov, S. N. Prokopovich and others). Noted the relationship between evaluations of the events of the Civil war, New economic policy and collectivization in the historical traditions of the Cossack abroad of the 1920-1930s. Contradictions in the assessments of the New economic policy of the 1920s are revealed between the Don and the Kuban historians - the proponents of the indivisible unity with Russia and "independence supporters". The compromise position of F. A. Scherbina in this period is noted. An attempt is made to reconstruct the range of sources of information studied by historians - representatives of the first generation of the Cossack abroad: economic and socio-demographic statistics, ethnographic observations, works of Soviet publicists, reports of the Soviet and emigrant periodicals.

The first half of the XX century is an era of crisis and collapse of the colonial system, the formation of national states in Asia and Africa. In many newly formed states, Muslims formed the majority or a significant part of the population, and there were tendencies to identify ethnic and religious identities. The liberation movement in British India, along with its main anti-colonial content, provided one example of such a trend - a surge of Muslim nationalism under the slogan of recognizing the Ummah community as a separate nation, culminating in the division of the country and the creation of two new states. In this regard, the religious and philosophical views of Indian politicians, both supporters of a single secular country and adherents of the idea of partition, are of considerable scientific interest. In this article, the author sets a task to analyze the views of a Muslim by faith, an outstanding fighter for the independence of India, Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958), who is poorly studied in Russian science. A genuine Maulana Muslim scholar, one of the leaders of the country's leading political party, the Indian national Congress (INC), an associate of Gandhi and Nehru, what religious and philosophical motives guided him? The article is based on an objective and critical analysis of original sources. Azad was born in Mecca in 1888. In 1890, his family moved to Calcutta. In his youth, he received a traditional Muslim education. In 1912, Azad joined the largest party in India, the Indian national Congress (INC). Since 1920, he continuously was a member of the party's highest body, the Executive Committee. He was twice elected President of the Congress in 1923 and 1940. From 1947 to the end of his days, he served as the Minister of education of India. Azad's religious worldview was the basis for his position on the methods of achieving India's independence, India's participation in the Second World War on the side of the anti-Hitler coalition, and the solution of the religious and communal problems. Azad supported the revision of Islamic teachings based on the Koran, called on Muslims to participate in the national liberation struggle against the mother countries, was a proponent of secularization of public life, called for tolerance of other religions and recognized the unity of all humankind. Below, for the first time in Russian literature, Azad's position is be presented on such issues as the problem of interpretation of the Koran, the knowledge of God, the manifestation of God, the attitude of believers to their faiths, the view of Christianity and other religions, the unity of humanity, Islam and freedom.

The article is devoted to an insufficiently studied issue of the participation of partisan detachments of the Stavropol Territory in the hostilities of the 4th Guards Kuban Cossack Cavalry Corps against the Nazi invaders in October - November 1942. Based on the journal of military operations of the 10th Guards Kuban Cavalry Division, award documents of partisans, materials from the funds of the State Archives of the Stavropol Territory about the partisan movement in the Stavropol Territory during the Great Patriotic War, memoirs of participants in battles and battles and other sources, the article analyzes the facts concerning the formation of the 4th consolidated partisan cavalry regiment. Its structure, manning, the conditions for joining the named division and the reasons for leaving it are considered, the course of hostilities and their results are described, examples of courage and heroism, the facts of the death of partisans are given. This topic touches upon such a rare phenomenon during the Great Patriotic War, as the entry of a consolidated partisan regiment as a military unit into a cavalry division of the Red Army to solve tasks unusual for partisan formations. The regiment existed for a relatively short period. Having lost their first commander, despite the decision to withdraw from the division, the partisans were forced to participate in bloody battles for the village of Achikulak, where they again suffered heavy losses. The analysis showed the complex nature of the joint use of heterogeneous forces subordinate to the military command and the local civilian leadership, the desire of the partisans to withdraw from the active army to operate behind enemy lines in accordance with their mission.

The relevance of the topic lies in the strategic significance of Tibet both in the first half of the twentieth century and now. Historical analysis of international competition on the issue of the status of Tibet allows us to draw important theoretical conclusions about the typology of international relations and forms of statehood in the East. The novelty of the work is that the author introduces new sources in foreign languages into scientific circulation. Changes in the status of Tibet in the context of great power competition and differences in the typology of forms of political and territorial structure in Chinese and Western political traditions are revealed. The author determined that the Simla Convention of 1914 preserved the status of Outer Tibet as part of the state territory of China and Chinese suzerainty over Outer Tibet. The Simla Convention recognized Outer Tibet as an Autonomous state with political autonomy rights. However, this international act limited China's position in Tibet. China was granted the right to observe the state of Affairs in Outer Tibet, nothing more. British India found more opportunities in Outer Tibet than China. Western countries and China perceived the meaning of the Simla Convention in a negative way, in accordance with their political and legal traditions. Therefore, China refused to ratify the Simla Convention. After the signing of the Simla Convention, Tibet tried to secede from China and obtain official recognition of its sovereignty. The author gives an interpretation of the types of territorial and political structure, revealing the differences between unitary, Federal, Confederation, monarchical Union and forms of autonomy in unitary States. The similarity of vassal States in the Chinese tradition and Autonomous entities in the Western sense is noted. From China's point of view, Tibet was part of the geopolitical belt of vassal political entities that did not have independence. China wanted the United Kingdom and the United States to revoke Tibet's political autonomy and allow China to establish military and administrative control over Tibet. These interests of China were not supported by the British Empire and the United States.

The article examines the initial stage of political reforms in Florence, which got rid of the Medici's "tyranny" in November 1494. The splash of unity during the November coup was soon replaced by the division of the citizens into groups defending various options for organizing the government system (the regime of Optimates or the expansion of democracy). The confrontation between oligarchic and democratic tendencies manifested itself both during the implementation of the institutional reform (the establishment of the Grand Council on December 23, 1494) and in the process of promoting the law on "universal peace" and "six beans". The material involved in the study makes it possible to form an idea not only of the nature of political processes in the society at the stage of its reforming, but also to address the problem of the influence of the Florence spiritual leader, the preacher and prophet Girolamo Savonarola, on them. The establishment of "universal peace", associated with the end of the long-running enmity of the Medici's supporters and opponents, was supposed to facilitate the reintegration of the society after the political upheavals of the end of 1494, which was especially important for the preservation of "Florentine freedom", both internal (a guarantee against tyranny) and external (with the outbreak of the Italian Wars (1494-1559), the urgency of threats increased). Whereas the first part of the law practically did not raise objections, the second one, connected with the right to appeal against the decisions of the Signoria on punishing state prisoners and criminals, gave rise to a lot of controversy, firstly, about the need for such a step, and secondly, about the appeal instance (in both cases, concerns were associated with the possibility of violating the "fiorentina libertas" principle).

The article deals with the creation, directions of activities of the Caucasian Mountain Society at the turn of the XIX -early XX centuries. The Caucasian Mountain Society played an important role in the development of tourism in the North Caucasus, in the study of the Caucasian Mineral Waters, the Caucasus Mountains, and the study of the multinational region. The Society brought together scientists, ethnographers, topographers, photographers, engineers, writers and teachers of Russia. Excursion work took a significant place in the field of activity of the Society's members. The Society organized excursions for residents of the Caucasian Mineral Waters, tourists coming from different parts of the Russian Empire and Western Europe. The main attention was paid to conducting excursions for students of educational institutions of the Russian Empire, who got acquainted with amazing places, history, culture, nature of the Caucasus. The company has developed 16 routes, ranging from excursions along the Caucasian Mineral Waters to routes along military roads - Georgian, Ossetian, Elbrus, and Kazbek. One of the directions in the work of the Society was publishing. Members of the Society published the "Yearbook of the Caucasian Mountain Society in Pyatigorsk" and "Bulletin of the Caucasian Mountain Society", as well as brochures reflecting observations on the history, archeology, geology, botany of the North Caucasus. The Caucasian Mountain Society carried out archaeological work, took care of the protection of archaeological monuments. The society opened a library, which presented unique collections of books on the history of the North Caucasus, maps, reference materials. The Caucasian Mountain Society did a lot to create a museum, which presented materials on geology, botany, entomology, paleontology, archeology, photographs of prominent places in the Caucasus, on the basis of which the Pyatigorsk Museum of Local Lore was created. The Caucasian Mountain Society laid the foundation for a comprehensive study of the North Caucasus, the development of North Caucasus local history, laid research and practical traditions that were perceived by scientists and scientific institutions during the Soviet period.

In Russian historiography, for more than a century, there have been disputes about the possible reasons for the origin of East Slavic / Old Russian cities. Today, several hypotheses coexist: 1) cities are products of state power, 2) their emergence was influenced by the trade and craft factor, 3) the needs of defense influenced the formation of towns, 4) cities arose from rural settlements and were brought into being by the need to coordinate the increasingly complex social and political life -as the administrative centers of Slavic tribes / tribal unions. Such hypotheses began to appear as early as the 18th century, at a time when the features of the classical European model of historical science began to take shape on the basis of European rationalism. Historiographic sources for research were (big) national histories, essay kinds of historical narrations, scientific research, historical descriptions, educational books on history, etc. Analysis of historiographic sources of the 18th century allowed identifying two close views that influenced the formation of the hypothesis about the city as the administrative center of the district. The basis of the first view was the stage theory of human development that appeared in the second half of the 18th century. Its universal nature made it possible to hypotheti-cally represent not only the difference in the "nomadic" (wild-ness) and "settled" (barbarity) stages, but also to draw attention to the sedentary population, which had to settle in certain places "villages" - settlements farmers, some of whom became urban settlements. The second view was based on the interpretation of historical sources (chronicles). Historians drew attention to individual Slavic tribes, which created their own "towns" ("fenced villages"). By the end of the 18th century, in educational books on history and in researches A.L. Schlozer drew attention to the city as a product of changes in the economic activity of the population and as the administrative center of Slavic societies.

The article is devoted to a comparative analysis of the historical ideas of Russians and Belarusians about the heritage of Ancient Rus. With the reference to toponymic traditions and legends, epic plots, spiritual poems, ritual poetry, the author examines the peculiarities of the attitude of Russian and Belarusian peoples to the characters and events of ancient Russian history. The parallels are revealed in the responses to the activities of Prince Vladimir in strengthening the state unity of Russia, in comprehending the images of the Russian princesses Olga and Rogneda with the help of landscape elements, in the participation of the people in the recruitment of the squads. The images of heroes-snake-fighters are considered in the context of ideas about the opposition of Christianity and archaic beliefs in the era of Vladimir I and his successors. At the same time, the epic Volkh Vseslavievich was the personification of the legacy of pre-Christian Russia, the epic records of which were recorded in the northern Russian provinces until the middle of the 19th century, and the image of a werewolf prince was reflected in Belarusian fairy tales of that time. The reflection of traces of the dynastic ties of Ancient Russia with European states in the epic about Nightingale Budimirovich is considered in analogy with ritual texts, as all the main images, namely the arrival of a foreign groom from across the sea on ships, the construction of a "tower", the image of the groom as a nightingale in the bride's garden, the arrival of the bride in the golden-domed chambers of the groom and others, are represented in Russian and Belarusian wedding poetry. Based on the materials of toponymic legends, similar plots related to the Tatar invasion are characterized. The author sees the peculiarity of Belarusian historical ideas in the fact that the folk versions of history in the Aesopian language of fairy tales, spiritual poems, ritual poetry opposed the historical concepts of the invaders, the memory of the unity and greatness of Ancient Russia, praised the exploits of the ancient Russian heroes, substantiated the need to combat social and confessional oppression. Despite the difference in the historical conditions in which they were formed, the folk ideas of Russians and Belarusians, their plots and images are largely identical. Similar texts performed an integrating function, preserving the memory of heroes and devotees, endowed with typical features of a folk character. With all the generalizations, hy-perbolizations, local manifestations of identity, ethnocultural and confessional stereotypes, Russians and Belarusians did not distort the main meaning of their historical spirits.

The article shows what problems interested humanities scholars and publicists in the prewar period of the Soviet history and how these problems were covered from new methodological positions. The works created at that time by historians of the old school are examined, it is emphasized that even in articles written by authors who have not mastered Marxist theory, much attention is paid to the problems of the life of the masses, the manifestations of the class struggle, and public relations in Stavropol villages. The activity of local history societies and organizations is highlighted. Researchers paid much attention to the problems of the agrarian history of Stavropol, works of this time, as a rule, affect both the pre-Soviet and Soviet periods, since most of them give comparative material. In the 1920s, when the ways of agricultural development were not yet determined, the practical needs of the agricultural sector caused increased attention to the issues of developing cooperation, forms of land ownership and land use in the past. The restructuring of the economy in a socialist manner in the late 1920s and early 1930s is reflected in the journalistic articles of party and Soviet leaders. In the period under review, the history of the revolutionary movement and the struggle for power of the Soviets became the most relevant topics for research. The article discusses the activities of Eastparts - commissions on the history of the revolutionary movement and civil war. It is shown that these organizations, including the Stavropol Istpart, have done a lot to collect and publish materials on this topic. The analysis of journal publications is given, the errors made by the authors are revealed. The widespread publication of the memoirs of participants in revolutionary events, characteristic of the 1920s, was not accompanied by a critical check, therefore, over articles containing incorrect information or a controversial assessment of events, discussions arose in which both historians and participants in the events took part. The characteristic is given to generalizing works on the history of the October Revolution and the Civil war in the Stavropol Territory.

The article discusses the place and meaning of the stories about miracles in the Tale of Bygone Years, which are the stories of unexpected, supernatural events that occur at the will of God and solve some earthly problems. The miracle is a genre of Old Russian literature, found mainly in the hagiography. The specificity of miracles as stable literary elements in chronicles is their polysemanticism, acquired in interaction with other parts of the annalistic text. Wonders are an integral part of the picture of the world of the Old Russian inhabitants, and therefore the study of the representation of the phenomenon of "miracle" in annalistic texts is important and necessary to reconstruct the mentality and everyday practices of these people. The marker of "miraculous" in the Tale of Bygone Yearsis an emotionally loaded description of an event that caused surprise or curiosity. The article shows the ways of representation and the role of the "miraculous" in the text of the Tale of Bygone Years, preserved in the Laurentian, Ipatiev, Radzivilov, Novgorod first (senior and junior) chronicles. The 'miraculous' as a part of the 'wondrous' is regarded as a symbolic expression of the idea of manifestation of divine power and divine will through the Magi, the monks of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, and the first Russian saints Boris and Gleb, proposed by the conditional author of the Tale of Bygone Years. It is proved that in the Tale of Bygone Years, there is an opposition to the wonders of the magi by attributing to the magi the features of biblical false prophets and emphasizing the "unsurprising" of their miracles. This can be explained by the fact that the preceding Story of the Time Years of Chronicles was compiled under the impression of the Rostov uprising of 1071, led by the Magi from Yaroslavl. An attempt was made to reveal textual connections of annalistic miracles with famous sources of the Tale of Bygone Years: the Chronicle of George Amartol, the Revelation of Methodius of Pattar, translated (The Life of Basil the New) and Old Russian hagiographic works (Kiev-Pechersk Paterik, the Tale of Boris and Gleb), books of the Old and New Testaments. The possibilities of applying interdisciplinary methods in the study of Old Russian historical sources are revealed.

The article examines the material that allows you to get an idea of the basic principles and scope of organization, as well as the provision of social assistance in prerevolutionary Russia and Russia in the first years of the existence of the Soviet power. Specific examples show that by the beginning of the XX century the country had a steady tradition of providing various types of assistance to socially underprivileged population, primarily through personal and organized private charity, as well as the activities of Russian charitable departments of a semistate, semipublic nature. At the same time, the author concludes that the measures and scales of social assistance to the population by the state itself are insufficient, which became one of the reasons for the social explosion of 1917. The article shows how the new government from the very first days began to form a fullfledged legal basis for the implementation of one of the Bolsheviks' program provisions on the universal provision of every disabled person according to his needs. The decree on the social security of workers of October 31, 1918 regulated the provision of all cases related to the loss of livelihood, both due to temporary and permanent incapacity for work. The new law obliged the social security agencies created by the new government to take preventive measures against diseases, injuries, disabilities, etc. Every worker received the right, in case of illness, to all types of medical assistance. Negotiated the law and the right of everyone who lost their ability to work or work (through no fault of their own) to receive benefits or pensions.

The author examines the process of the impact of a new political course of the Khrushchev Thaw era on the state of Soviet culture and the specifics of the cultural policy of the party and state leadership in the context of its implementation on the ground using the example of the activities of professional theater and entertainment associations Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories. The work analyzes the process of formation of new directions in music repertoire, theatrical performances and pop repertoire in the context of regional themes. The problem of attracting local authors was the main because party instruction. It required that pop programs and theatrical performances based on local material were supposed not only to "bring a positive character onto the stage" as an example for the workers, but this character should be understandable and close to local residents. In the spirit of the unity of theory and practice, proclaimed by the new party leaders, the use of images of positive characters from the locals will lead to an increase in the enthusiasm of workers, and, therefore, to the rise of regional economy. The author paid attention to the revitalization of activity in the late 1950s - early 19600s of musical and theatrical public organizations of the Southern province by the example of local branches of the All-Russian Choral and All-Union Theater Societies. Based on the analysis of sources, the multifaceted work of professional theatrical and entertainment associations of the Kuban and Stavropol regions on the artistic education of young spectators is shown; new forms of this work are highlighted. The author paid special attention to the expansion of this activity in the villages of the Kuban and Stavropol regions. The article traces the previously unprecedented process of the development of amateur art and, on its basis, the identification of folk talents. Together with the patronage of professional actors, musicians, directors, this led to the emergence in the regions of high-quality musical and theatrical training from among local residents and the creation of powerful creative teams that could compete with professionals. The consequence of this was the assignment of the status of professional and even academic ensembles and theaters to the best amateur ensembles. Within the framework of this article, the question is raised about such a new phenomenon in the artistic life of the southern province of the the Khrushchev Thaw epoch, as the organization of tours of foreign artists in the cities of Stavropol and Kuban.

The article traces the dynamics of the development of crisis trends, on the one hand, within the capitalist world, conditioned by the results of the First World War and the conclusion of the Versailles Peace Treaty, on the other, between the capitalist powers and the Soviet state. Against this background, the revanchist aspirations of Germany during the Weimar Republic are shown, the process of the formation of the National Socialist regime in the Third Reich, which dragged humanity into the Second World War, is revealed. The leading powers of the capitalist world, in their striving for world domination, expanding the markets for raw materials and sales and preserving the world order established by them, made unsuccessful attempts to isolate the USSR from participating in solving major international problems and reducing its foreign policy activity, primarily in supporting national liberation movements and elimination of the world colonial system. Encouraged by radical ultra-right political forces that represented large industrial monopolies in governments, the Western powers intended to expand their possessions at the expense of the German Afro-Asian colonies, but these plans also turned out to be unrealizable. Germany, humiliated and limited in action by the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, was not only able to defend its international interests, but also to designate claims to expand living space for the Aryans. In the end, the West, divided into two opposing blocs, decided to use the tough foreign policy course of the German leadership against the Soviet Union. To this end, it persistently pursued a policy of appeasing German militarism and ignored numerous Soviet initiatives aimed at creating a collective security system in Europe. For the reasons set out above, the West was unable to give an objective assessment of the proposals of the Soviet leadership, thereby facilitating the unleashing of the world's largest military conflict in the history of mankind by fascist Germany.

The use of the achievements of various directions of historical research enables us to address new questions to already well-known sources, an example of which is the collection of stories about the lifetime and posthumous miracles of the Florentine preacher-prophet, Savonarola, taken for the analysis in this article. Rethinking this text through the lens of historical anthropology and the history of holiness contributes to a deeper insight into the specifics of the «Savonarola movement». Being a result of the collective work of Brother Girolamo's followers -«whiners», «Treatise on the Miracles» contains information about the peculiarities of consciousness and behavior of this group in the atmosphere of persecution that fell upon them after the execution of the Dominican monk. This source is one of the evidences of the formation the cult of the «new saint» among the «whiners» in the late 15th - 16th centuries. The study of the texts of the miracles allowed us to conclude that most of the signs of a saint inherent in the consciousness of that time were embodied in the stories about the Dominican monk. The stories included in the Treatise reflect the desire of Brother's supporters not only for his personal veneration, but also for the spread of the cult, and hence the doctrine, among other believers. Above all, the stories of Savonarola's miracles had a therapeutic focus, were aimed at uniting the community of the faithful, as well as maintaining their steadfastness in following the teachings of the Dominican preacher.

The change of national status of the historical region of the Hungarian kingdom, the socalled Southern Hungary (Hungarian "Delvidek"), was stipulated by the Armistice of Belgrade on November 13, 1918. It was concluded between the Hungarian revolutionary government of Count Mihaly Karolyi and the Allied Powers in the Balkans (French Marshal Franchet d'Esperey). Hungary pledged to allow the Entente to occupy a number of points on its territory, including the overwhelming part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes that later seceded in accordance with the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. However, already in the period from the Armistice of Belgrade to the Treaty of Trianon, Delvidek (Serbian Vojvodina), the civil administration gradually came under the control of Serbian authorities. The Hungarians living in this territory suffered from numerous measures of the emerging Yugoslav state administration, which were aimed at discouraging them in their political, economic and cultural rights, as well as the right to use their mother tongue. Until the end of the 1920s, representatives of the Hungarian national minority in Delvidek developed their own strategy for survival in new political and state conditions.

The formation of the institution of collective labor disputes has passed a considerable historical period from the recognition of the right to labor conflicts to their complete denial and reception in labor relations. The historical conditions for the development of public relations in the country have left a certain imprint on this institution. Analyzing previously developed legal norms, we identify patterns of development of collective labor disputes, better understand the objective and subjective conditions of labor conflicts and focus on the prevention of disputes in the field of hired labor. This article is devoted to the legal analysis of the Soviet period of the formation of normative activity in the Stavropol region in the field of regulation of labor conflicts. It analyzes the activities of trade unions, employers and authorities to create a legal framework for the settlement of labor disputes in the province against the background of the lack of legal regulation of labor disputes at the Union level and mass actions of employees to protect their economic rights and interests. Based on specific archival material, the author considers the effective steps of standard-setting activities to resolve labor disputes in the Stavropol province. Attention is paid to the peculiarities of local rulemaking during the period of collective protection of labor rights by employees due to inertia after the revolution and before the complete disappearance of norms on the regulation of collective labor disputes from the legal acts of Soviet Russia.

The main directions of financial control in the field of procurement are determined by the financial and legal policy of the state. Thus, in order to understand the essence of the principles of financial control in the field of procurement, this scientific article highlights the scientific justification of the concepts of "financial policy" and "financial and legal policy". The principles of financial control acquire a certain significance due to the implementation of practical comprehensive activities of financial control. The article points to the allocation of a certain category of principles in the science of financial law, which are the General principles of public relations. For example, the same principles are enshrined in financial, tax, currency, and budget law, namely, legality, transparency, and consistency. In order to achieve effectiveness in conducting financial and control activities, it is necessary to follow certain principles. When conducting financial control in any sphere of public life, including state orders, it is necessary to know the ground on which control measures are based. To determine such legal bases (principles), it is necessary to determine the "source" of their formation. The article reveals the content, issues and legal aspects of the principles of financial control in procurement, scientific approaches to determination of essence of the principles of financial control are given. The author specifies the types of financial control principles and their legal significance, as a condition of implementation of external financial control in the area of procurement. The article presents the author's types of principles of financial control in procurement based on the provisions of the legislation on contract system in procurement and proposes measures to improve the results of procurement procedures, in terms of quality, impact and achievement of required tasks specified in the law on the state order. In view of the above, and taking into account the fact that the legislation of the Russian Federation does not stipulate the principles of financial control in the sphere of procurement to ensure effective verification activities on the compliance with budget legislation and other regulatory legal acts that regulate preparation, execution and budget spending of the country in the field of procurement, the topics discussed in this article appear to be relevant.

In the article, based on the analysis of doctrinal, reference normative and law enforcement sources, the phenomena «legal position» and «political position» are investigated. Doctrinal and reference materials, international treaties and agreements, provisions of domestic law, as well as acts of international and national jurisdictional bodies served as the source of the research. The absence of a uniform understanding of legal and political positions in domestic and international official documents was established. The content of the legal position in Russia is often associated with the results of the interpretation of the norms of law by the participants in the trial. At the interstate level, legal positions are considered as formulated legal beliefs (systems of legal beliefs) of individual subjects, which can enter into dissonance with respect to each other. Political positions express the attitude of the subjects of politics to various elements of the political sphere, assessments of the relevant political phenomena and the results of the choice of means and methods of political struggle. The author notes the diversity of interpretations of political positions in Russian and international law, in the decisions of interstate jurisdictional bodies in the context of the right to designate political will, position (status), and political attitude to the institutions of power and as a source of information about political life. The study reveals contradictions in the structure of legal, political and factual positions, which can be rational and irrational, repeating the corresponding features and defects of legal consciousness of the subjects-carriers. Correlation of legal and political positions in the system "form" and "content" is carried out. The productive properties and qualities of legal and political positions that can prevent (assist in overcoming, resolving) legal and political conflicts have been determined. The classification of legal and political positions according to the degree of importance into official, semiofficial and unofficial is proposed.

Violence as a widespread and complex social phenomenon is the object of research in many Humanities, including legal sciences. The study of violence as a method of committing a socially dangerous act is of great importance in criminal law, where the subject of scientific discourse is the separation of criminal violence from non-criminal violence, types and methods of violence, especially various methods of mental violence. The article attempts to generalize the experience of criminal law analysis of criminal violence in both general and special parts of the criminal law and the law. At the same time, the authors note that violence as a special way of committing a socially dangerous act is not properly reflected in the criminal law statistics carried out by domestic law enforcement agencies. The paper notes the diversity of the object of research: on the one hand, the complexity of understanding it only from a General philosophical position, on the other, a wide range of even its criminal manifestations, which is expressed in the presence of a variety of terms in the criminal law of Russia that denote certain types of terms. There are various features of the actual expression of criminal violence, its influence on the development of the causal relationship between the act and the consequences, as well as the consequences themselves, which can be expressed in various types of harm to numerous rights and interests of the individual and the degrees of their manifestation. The second, most of the work is devoted to the place of violent torts in the Chapter of the Criminal code of the Russian Federation that provides for liability for crimes against human life and health, the analysis of specific types of violence used in this case, its socially dangerous consequences and their impact on the criminal liability provided for by law. A significant part of this research is the specific features of qualification of separate kinds of crimes under Chapter 16 of the criminal code, including separation of certain offenses from others, connecting with them.

The institute for the forced seizure of land in the Russian Federation has been developing since the times of the USSR, but is still very far from being perfect. The article addresses the problems of the grounds for such a seizure provided for in the law. It is concluded that these grounds were previously formulated in the law extremely incorrectly. In 2016, a new wording of the grounds for the forced seizure of a land plot was introduced into the Land Code of the Russian Federation. Now this includes its use for non-intended purposes or the use of land in violation of the law. The article explains why this formula is also not sufficiently complete. The article also addresses the problems of interpreting these grounds in law enforcement practice. Examples of court decisions are given on which land plots were seized from title holders on grounds that do not fully correspond to the letter of the law. Especially many problems in this regard are associated with the plowing of pastures, which is interpreted by the enforcer as a violation of the intended purpose of land, which does not find sufficient grounds in land legislation. The article discusses the influence of the institution of forced seizure of land in Russia and other countries of the Eurasian Economic Union on the effectiveness of their economic integration. The examples of Russia and Kazakhstan show how the imperfections of this institute can affect the investment attractiveness of land-use industries. Thus, the problem of expanding the list of border territories of the Russian Federation in 2020 is being analyzed, as a result of which foreign citizens, stateless persons and foreign legal entities have lost the right to own land in these territories. At the same time, Russian legislation lacks the procedure for the seizure of such lands. Based on the results of the study, conclusions with novelty are formulated regarding the improvement of the institution of forced seizure of land in Russia and the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union.

The relevance of this article is due to its theoretical and practical significance. The theoretical significance of the study of administrative responsibility for violations of the requirements for obtaining and growing genetically modified crops and the turnover of products obtained with their use is due to the fact that there is no sufficient scientific study of the composition of administrative offenses in this area; the current state of development of the theory of administrative law shows the lack of research aimed at optimizing administrative responsibility in the field of genetic engineering in terms of quantitative and qualitative indicators, and the identification of appropriate compositions of administrative offenses in the crop industry. The practical significance of the analysis of the materials of the draft law on this issue is determined by the fact that its proper scientific justification depends on further development of the Russian legislation on administrative responsibility in the field of genetic engineering in crop production, since the improvement of the approach to establishing administrative responsibility for violations of the requirements for obtaining, the cultivation of genetically modified crops and the turnover of the resulting products can contribute to the introduction of subsequent innovations in the draft law under the study. This paper identified key features of the new approach on the draft administrative code to the regulation of administrative responsibility in the field of genetic engineering in crop production, however, most of the proposed standards have an undivided subject of regulation, establishing administrative liability for violations of the rules for the implementation of genetic engineering activities and turnover of the resulting products in general, without taking into account its specificity in crop and livestock production. The scientific novelty of the article lies in the fact that it is based on the analysis of the new draft of the Administrative Code of the Russian Federation, the authors identify and characterize the composition of administrative offenses that directly affect genetic engineering activities in the crop industry in terms of generic objects, subjects, administrative penalties and prospects for expanding the judicial jurisdiction of the relevant cases, which can stimulate further research in this area

In the era of global technological development, the modern state is obliged to ensure security and, above all, to counter internal threats to the state, including espionage, terrorism, arms trafficking, extremism, the disclosure of classified information or even cybercrime. Ensuring security is the responsibility of the state, which must protect its citizens from threats, acting rationally and striving to reduce their sense of danger and uncertainty. This is mainly due to the security policy, which should organize the activities of the competent authorities in order to ensure the safety of society. In addition, a properly functioning political system should respond to all threats to the state that are political and domestic in nature, such as political desta-bilization, political upheaval, events that violate the constitutional, legal or economic order in the country. The study focused on attempts to understand the processes taking place in this reality, the specific consequences of which are determined by specific reasons, taking into account the context of the dependence of actual (empirical) argumentation and logical correctness. The study used a mixed research scheme, which allowed us to study the same facts as a result of combining different methods with the predominance of quantitative methods. When planning the study, it was assumed that the duration of the time series used would depend on the availability of statistical data for individual variables of the studied areas. The documentary source of the research became the received published and unpublished information from government services and authorities, including on the extent of the application of operational control and the degree to which telecommunications data were obtained.

He study focuses on specific features of translating relevant phonetic, rhythmic and lexical-grammatical components within the framework of preserving the perlocutionary effect of children's poetry that is adequate to the source. The translation specifics of children's poetry implies its graphic nature, rapid change of images, lyricism, mobility, rhythm variability, increased speech musicality, parallel rhyme, and the semantic load is concentrated in words, which are used to ensure rhyme. The material for the study included poetry works from the collection of children's folk poetry "Mother Goose's Nursery Rhymes" (Mother Goose's songs), as well as their translations performed by S. Ya. Marshak and K. I. Chukovsky. The purpose of the work was to identify and offer a description for the most effective means of implementing content and theme and function and stylistics unity, which allow preserving the original perlocutionary effect, taking into account the recipient's age and psychological features. The methods were determined by the specifics of the object and material of the study, and are based on a comprehensive comparative analysis of the empirical data, inductive method, and contextual analysis. In children's poetry texts, one of the basic principles of construction is a pragmatic orientation to the psychological, emotional and age-related features of the potential recipient. The most common methods employed to preserve the perlocutionary effect on the phonetic level include rhythm alignment, creating your own rhythm or its repetition, transmitting assonance/dissonance and search for equivalents of English onomatopoeia; on the morphemic level - affixation; on the lexical level - translation transformations (transcription, transliteration, translation loan, narrowing of meaning, expansion of meaning, empha-tization, neutralization) as well as creating/preserving stylistic devices (metaphors, irony, epithets); on the syntax level - translation transformations (permutation, contraction, addition, omission) and creation/preservation of stylistic devices (parallel constructions, enumerations, antithesis, ellipsis, narrative/rhetorical questions).

The article examines some aspects of the linguistic use of syntactic means of the name, which are involved in the formation of the Russian poetic picture of the world, reflecting the "logic" of constructing a poetic text. It seems relevant after Yu. M. Lotman to consider this text as an artistic structure "extended in space" and constructing complex meanings according to the "principle of return", when the poet, repeating what has already been said, which played a role in the text, reveals in it new, previously hidden and sometimes unexpected semantic shades. The use of a phrasal nomination, whose rhetorical pragmatic potential is the subject of research in the work, is determined, in contrast to the lexical name, by such a structuring of the internal form of a descriptive designation, which is based on predicating a feature or a number of features of the denoted. In this case, the author of a poetic text receives not only complete and immanent freedom of choice and the main attributes of the denotation, and its details, and the circumstances of the disclosure of signs, but also the opportunity to include meta-commentary elements in the nomination space, fixing the author's presence in the text. With the reference to the works by A. A. Akhmatova, B. Sh. Okudzhava and A. S. Kushner, the authors reveal specificity in the use of predicative names as structural elements that acquire a special semantic load of rhetorical orientation in a poetic text. An analysis of how the linguistic potential of phrasal nomination in the language of poetry is revealed allows us to conclude that a detailed and comprehensive analysis of the internal form of this name as a poetic structure participating in the formation of an individual-personal author's dialogue (polylogue) with the addressee of the poetic text is legitimate. The article notes that the use of the syntactic nomination as the structure of the "frozen moment" of poetic life is associated with the linguistics of catharsis.

He communicative strategies used in sports newspaper and journalistic discourse have not been studied enough: the communication strategy is one of the most relevant aspects of the study in the field of discourse theory, first of all, because thanks to the implementation of communication strategies, the author's intentions are embodied, acquire their ontological status as the goals of communication. The study of any kind of discourse in the communicative-pragmatic aspect would be incomplete and would not have sufficient explanatory power without resorting to the concept of a communicative strategy. A communicative strategy in the form in which it is implemented in any discourse can be considered as a complex of speech actions that are aimed at achieving communicative goal. Modern linguistics has a number of definitions of communicative strategy and concepts for the implementation of communicative strategies and tactics in discourse and text. In the process of communicative strategy implementation, speech impact on the addressee is performed in such a way as to transform his behavior to a certain extent in accordance with the goals of the addressee. In this regard, it is necessary to emphasize that the addressee plans communicative act in accordance with his goals and objectives, ensuring the success of his communicative efforts. M. L. Makarov pays special attention to linguistic means, but not to the goals of the communication act, which allows us to speak about a certain convergence of communicative strategy definition in its interpretation with communicative tactics, because the means of speech and language are precisely aimed at certain communication strategy forming. According to T. A. van Dijk, communication strategy is the most general instruction "for each specific situation of interpretation" [7], with the help of communication strategy, both the individual goals of the addressee and some goals that are significant for society can be achieved. The choice of a specific communication strategy is determined, according to T. A. van Dijk, the specific intention of the addressee, which is necessarily manifested in given communicative situation, which allows us to correlate such concept with a cognitive-discursive approach that is significant for modern linguistics.

This study offers an analysis into the basic techniques and tactics of constructing a performative utterance in a personally oriented discourse, as well as ways to preserve their effectiveness when translating utterances from English into Russian. The most frequent and effective strategy for implementing the producent's dominant position is considered to be installation, which, subject to the author's opinion, is based on implementing two vectors of interpretation: subject-subject situationally objective mediated relations and 2) subject-object relations. The mediated subject-subject vector is sustained through accentuating the producent's dominant position through employing tactics like manifestation, confessiveness and bravado. These tactics not only allow the author of the statement to take over the actual role of the communication moderator, yet also help create a space for exculpation in case the communicative intention is disrupted. The processes of non-dominating space verbal explication correlate with the use of commitative, appellative and requestive acts based on the "friendly positioning" tactics. In this case, a speech act can be interpreted as the most performative with shades of negative action since the act of hypocritical complimentation is a manifestation of real, not verbal "misdemeanor". Through translation of the expansion components of the dominant position, and ensuring the highest degree of access to the discourse development, the most difficult part is to maintain in the target text proper perlocutionary effect of the performative in view of the linguistic and cultural differences of the cognitive-communicative ratification of the modal spaces. Translation of performative meanings is ensured through employing complex lexical and grammatical transformations, contextual equivalents corrected based on pragmatic verification, as well as addiction or devaluation of the expressive components of the original performative.

The article is devoted to the problem of studying the category of text space, which is relevant for modern linguistics. In the last decade, interdisciplinary research conducted in cognitive and anthropological linguistics has changed the understanding of the semantic organization of a literary text. The text in its final form assumes a special material extension, sequentially connected sentences and super - phrasal units that produce semantic, but more specifically, semiotic space. The category of space in the text is perceived as a set of linear signs as a complex of meanings. With this interpretation, the text is considered as "a mental formation, a mental space that has a certain specificity". awareness of the "space of the text" allows linguists to present the text as an integral system in which structural connections are found that can help in the course of understanding the meanings inherent in the text. Thus, in modern research, it is necessary to study the text based on its spatio-temporal existence, because "the text is fixed in writing and is perceived through vision as a spatial phenomenon". For an objective linguistic expression of the category of mental space in the text, there is a certain set of lexical units and grammatical means by which the author creates a continuum of the work in front of the reader. The article lists the main linguistic means of expressing a spatial category, the analysis of which can lead to the essence of the work and highlight its continuum. The relevance of the study of the category of mental space in the text of a classical Russian writer lies in the search for an image of being a writer, in the ability to synthesize the national consciousness and the author's worldview by studying the language means of expressing spatial categories and ways to represent them in a literary text. Thus, the category of space in a literary text makes it possible to identify the characteristic features of the author's individual picture of the world. The article shows the linguistic features of the organization of the category of ethnomental space, the polar model of the world in the story of N. V. Gogol "the Enchanted place". The topos "cursed place" is an intermediate point between real and unreal space.

This article analyzes the major ways for translating emotional and aesthetic information lexical markers in the framework of maintaining the perlocutive effect of a psychologized text. Within the analysis, the extremely psychologized memoir-autobiographical text is viewed as a literary memory of events from the past created by a participant of the events that are described. Currently, such works are analyzed in history, in philology, as well as in psychology, and sociology as an important source of information. A comprehensive analysis expands the informational capacity of memoir-autobiographical texts, which leads to the development of more effective strategies for the emotivization of the target text. Following the aim and objectives of the undertaken research, the specifics of the translation of various lexical-stylistic means of emotional influence (based on F. Fenelon's autobiography) was revealed. Stylistically neutral vocabulary allows highlighting emotional means as a way to create a stylistic coloring. Emotionally colored words and expressions allow the author of the source and translation to describe the intolerable living conditions that prisoners had to suffer in a concentration camp, at the same time helping get distracted from from the current situation and translating sensory-somatic heteroimages into reflexive auto-images meant to set the recipient to perceiving the text within the framework of the immanently given "action scheme". While maintaining the stylistic specifics in the translation for the most complete transfer of all of the author's feelings and emotions, the most effective is the use of vocabulary equivalents, and in case they are lacking, more effective is the use of stylistic neutralization to follow the principle of gender specification. The study outcomes help broaden the understanding of the ways for emotivization and psychologization of the memoir-autobiographical text, and continue studying and developing basic principles for translation of psycho-emotive space in view of not only linguocultural specifics, yet also the speaker-recipient focus.