The process of state-building in post-Soviet republics was accompanied by a demonstration of their commitment to different political systems, different socio-economic models. These republics had their own assessments of the common history and vision of national interests, which did not coincide with the interests of other post-Soviet republics. Especially in this respect, Georgia stood out: after the events of August 2008. State-building in this republic was influenced by a number of negative factors that complicate the political situation in this country and in the South Caucasus region as a whole. These events aroused interest in them on the part of Russian researchers: their study was updated in connection with the growing threats to Russia's national security along the entire perimeter of its Caucasian borders. The novelty of the research is the study of the specific form of power in Georgia, which depends on the national- historical features and Georgian cultural traditions. The study found that political institutions were created in Georgia with some regard for other post-Soviet countries, but in general it followed its own path of development. The author's attention is focused on the problems that negatively affect the process of state-building in Georgia - radical nationalism, civil confrontation, ethno-political problems, etc. As a result of their detailed analysis, the author of the article concluded that the constitutional reform as a whole contributed to the replacement of the presidential form of government with a parliamentary one, but the lack of a legal framework for the functioning of democratic institutions negated the efforts of the Georgian leadership to create a socially oriented, democratic state.

Spain, after the civil war, was in international isolation for a long time. Only the restoration of democracy enabled the country to gradually take its rightful place on the world stage. In the 21st century, Spain has stepped up its foreign policy, which has acquired a stable multi-vector character, which is naturally reflected in the documents of the Spanish Foreign Ministry. The first Strategic Plan for Spain's foreign policy was presented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs back in 2000 and marked the end of the transition period that took place in the last quarter of the twentieth century and associated with Spain's overcoming of its foreign policy isolation, and the beginning of a new stage, characterized by Spain's search for its place in the world, taking into account its resources and foreign policy ambitions. The European vector remains the leading one in Spanish foreign policy. In the XXI century, the intensity of Spain's external ties with the North American and Latin American vectors stands out. The change of power in the United States in 2021, the inauguration of President J. Biden, should have a positive effect on the dynamics of bilateral relations between Spain and the United States. The article presents the hierarchy of foreign policy diplomacy, taking into account the prioritization of its vector diplomacy. Much attention in the article is paid to the historical background and the historical and cultural factor in the formation of the main directions of Spanish foreign policy at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries, which largely determine the relationship of Madrid with the Spanish-speaking states. The author comes to the conclusion about the synthesis of the country's historical past and modern realities while building Spain's multi-vector foreign policy.

Une 1553, the young king of England, Edward VI, who was dying of tuberculosis, and his regent, John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, hastily removed Mary Tudor, being Catholic, from the throne and appointed Lady Jane Grey, being protestant, as king's successor. Soon after Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed Queen. Mary did not accept this and called on her supporters to rebel against the Duke, who was trying to seize all power in the country. Her camp at Framlingham became a place of attraction for all forces dissatisied with the actions of Northumberland. These events were called in English history as the 1553 succession crisis. One of the central events of this crisis was the sending of a fleet against Mary to prevent her from escaping to the continent and to deprive her of possible foreign aid. However, the military squadron supported Mary. As contemporaries wrote, the transition of the fleet to the side of the legitimate Queen was one of the main reasons for her victory. The study of the leet's role in these events is quite relevant, since the participation of the Navy is still insuficiently studied. Historical sources that could tell about what happened are quite scarce, and those that have survived are very tendentious. All their authors were supporters of Mary Tudor. Most modern historians, including specialists in the history of the English Navy, do not mention the role of the military squadron in the defeat of the Duke of Northumberland. Those historians who recognize the contribution of the Navy to Mary's victory mostly rely on the evidence of contemporaries who claimed that the reason for the mutiny of ordinary seamen was their loyalty and natural love for the legitimate Queen. That is why the seamen raised a revolt against their captains serving the Duke, and forced them to go over to the side of Mary Tudor. This study is based on partially preserved materials of a trial that took place in 1555 and concerning the events 1553 succession crisis aboard Greyhound, one of the squadron's warships. Analysis of the court records allows the author for the first time to cast doubt on the stories of contemporaries of events, as well as the statements of modern historians based on these stories, that the reason for the insurrection of ordinary seamen against the captains was their natural love towards Mary Tudor.

The article studies the formation of an imperial system of legal regulation in the Caucasus during the deployment of the active phase of the Caucasian war and in the irst decades after its completion. The author points to its transitional nature. The system of legal regulation of life in territories controlled by the Russian authorities combined elements of imperial written and mountain customary law. The irst steps to form a system of governance in the Caucasus were taken by Prince M.S. Vorontsov and continued by Prince A.I. Baryatinsky. Both Caucasian governors were proponents of actively attracting people from the local environment to power institutions that established imperial authorities in the region. An experimental site for Prince M.S. Georgia served Vorontsov, where he made adjustments to the processes of civil administration and judicial proceedings. The Russian authorities did not intervene in the adat case study, which could be quite successfully applied along with the written laws of the empire. In the future, this practice became widespread in the North Caucasus, where it gained its supporter in the person of Prince A.I. Baryatinsky, who prepared the program according to which, having stood at the head of the People's Court and the People's Police, took under their influence and under the protection of state coercive power the people's law and then, creating favorable conditions for the further development of all these historically established elements, to provide an opportunity for the highlanders of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia to grow to complete statehood and citizenship by the natural process that all the peoples of Europe have reached them. The tradition of poliuridism fully corresponded to the mental preferences of the population, seemed natural and was understood with understanding by a signiicant part of mountain societies. The tribal institutions, until they began to oppose the basic demands of the imperial world order (for example, did not motivate them to engage in raiding activities), did not cause rejection among the tsarist administration. Moreover, representatives of the Russian authorities in the Caucasus paid tribute to their effectiveness and compliance with the level of development of mountain tribes. Being in conditions of military instability, the Russian administration concentrated the control of the mountaineers in the hands of the army, which fully corresponded to the peculiarities of the current moment, although it was a temporary, transitional measure. The local administration received the broadest powers, which made it possible to quickly respond to changes and not to apply every time to the authorities, losing time and authority in the eyes of the population. The Highlanders saw that in the ranks of oficials they attract people who have real merits to the authorities and are distinguished by competence in the work entrusted to them. And finally, involving the residents themselves in the resolution of judicial issues, taking into account their opinions and traditions, could not but impress and not work for the authority of the "Russian party" in the midst of autochthons.

The article considers social and economic steps of the Russian administration in the North Caucasus after armed opposition with the part of mountain peoples. These efforts had to provide the overcoming of results and recurrences of the mutual dislike, which accumulated in the war period between Empire and muridism supporters. Besides the highlanders had to adopt the state orders and partly refuse habitual mode of life, contradicting the demands of the state. The authorities aimed to demonstrate all advantages, taken by highlanders in exchange for their loyalty and law-obedience. It led to the serious transformation in the social sphere, that was perceived differently and together with the positive effect caused the seizure and resistance of the stratus of society, which couldn't accept Russian novation. Among the painfully perceived measures stood the release of the dependent classes. It is believed that the fear of losing their subjects became one of the motivations for the local nobility in deciding to leave their historic homeland and move to Turkey. Unusual and annoying mountaineers became the need to pay state taxes, which, although they were inferior in size to taxes in other parts of the empire, also looked like an attempt on freedom. The traditional stimuli in the form of land shortage have not disappeared anywhere. The steps of the authorities aimed at overcoming this situation were not crowned with success, and only temporarily weakened the growth of discontent. Trying to compensate for the inconvenience, the empire offered new social elevators to the locals. First of all, it was about service in the armed forces, where quite a few people from the local environment could make a successful career by engaging in a traditional and close to their mentality activity.

The article examines the peculiarities of the organization of rural society among Rutulians of the second half of the XVIII - the beginning of the twentieth century. The relevance of the problem posed is also that in recent years in the history of the peoples of South Dagestan actual rich material has accumulated, there is a sufficient base of historical work, which allows us to begin a detailed study and understanding of the historical past of rutuls in the XVII -the first half of the XIX century. In this regard, the study of the historical past of rutuls -one of the indigenous and small peoples of Dagestan, in the XVII - irst half of the XIX century, is a signiicant integral part of the study of the history of the peoples of Dagestan in one of the characterizing periods of their socio-political formation. The analysis of the adates of the peoples of South Dagestan gives a lot of valuable information for the characterization of the Dagestan jamaat, which included all the inhabitants of the same settlement, and the tukhums into which this jamaat was divided. The customary law of the Rutulians, like all the peoples of the Caucasus, attracted the attention of many pre-revolutionary Russian scientists. Field materials of the author were used to write the article. This study is considered to give how to study the structure of the rural community and the tuhum of the Rutulians in the indicated chronological framework (XVII - the first half of the XIX centuries). The conceptual approach is new to the analysis of the structure of the rural community in Southern Dagestan. In the study, mutually conditioning processes, which are given on the example of a small people - Rutul, are of particular value. This study examines the problem of self-government of the Rutuls in a political science vein. It is local self-government that gives an outlet to the desire of territorial communities for their independent and free development. All of the above and many other features of the relationship «feudal-union-community» indicate, irst of all, that feudal relations, their development among the Rutulians, and among the rest of the peoples of Southern Dagestan, proceeded in a peculiar way in comparison with other territories and regions. The originality was that the feudal estate here could not but reckon with such an impressive force as the close-knit unions of rural communities. The Rutul community functioned on a democratic, «people's power» basis in the course of the economic and social development of society, it underwent changes that were associated with the process of deepening the management elite and feudalization and property stratiication of uzdenie and bekism. The structure of mountain society among the Rutulites, like the rest of the peoples of Dagestan, was determined by the peculiarities of the development of the economy, as well as the level of social development. The article analyzes the forms of closely related associations of the peoples of the North Caucasus, the speciics of the rural community and the «free» societies of the Rutulians. The social structure of the rural community and the internal spiritual system determined by adats are shown.

The article analyzes the issues related to the development of agriculture in places of compact residence of Germans on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. It is well known that the German colonization of the south of the Russian Empire was aimed at active agrarian development of the land. Living on the territory of Crimea, the Germans were able to create an expanded agronomic system and to introduce signiicant land tracts of the steppe Crimea into agricultural circulation. This was due to the development of transport infrastructure as well as the growth in demand for grain in the domestic and foreign markets. In the climatic conditions of the peninsula, the main attention was paid to the cultivation of winter wheat, for which most of the land area was allocated. At the same time, the cultivation of such crops as potatoes, rye, corn and millet was assigned only to domestic consumption. Only the lands of those volosts (Byutenskaya, Tabuldinskaya, Zurichtal), in which there were small Crimean rivers, were used by the Germans for growing potatoes and other vegetables. After the establishment of Soviet government and the implementation of complete collectivization, the cultivation of winter wheat continued to dominate in places of compact residence of the Germans, and attempts were made to spread the culture of cotton production. It is stated in the article that the Germans applied an intensive approach to the organization of agriculture, the mechanization of labor and new technologies to increase the yield (the use of fertilizers, planting forest belts, the creation of seed farms). The widespread use of technical innovations by German farms allowed them to reduce losses during harvesting season and to cultivate the virgin lands of the steppe Crimea. The German experience was a good example for the surrounding population, who actively adopted many of the innovations applied by the Germans and introduced them into their farms.

The article examines the beginning of the political career of one of the closest Macedonian kings Philip II and Alexander III, and later a participant in the famous wars of the Diadochi - Eumenes of Cardia. The history of the early Hellenistic period, in particular the biographies of the leaders of that era, continues to arouse interest among researchers. Foreign literature is replenished with new monographs dedicated to outstanding representatives of the period that followed the death of Alexander. In our opinion, the personality of Eumenes of Cardia is unfairly ignored in Russian historiography. The relevance of the work lies in the need to highlight the first years of the life of the above-mentioned political and later military leader. The article attempts to clarify the origin of Eumenes from Cardia, his formation and the duties he performed at the Macedonian court during the time of Philip II, as well as his service during the Asian campaign of Alexander the Great. In addition, in the context of research and analysis of the biography of Eumenes of Cardia, his administrative position of the royal «secretary» in the Macedonian kingdom is considered. Being in this post entailed the fulfillment of such duties as keeping the royal personal diary, which speaks of the important status of the person engaged in this activity. In this vein, we should consider the problem of «ephemeris» and «hypomnematics» - everyday recordings and planned projects, respectively, thanks to which we know about the last days of Alexander the Great's life and which Eumenes of Cardia supposedly recorded as the «аrchigrammatheus» of the king.

The Battle of Fyrisvellir (also known as the "Battle of Firisvallarna") is a significant event in early Swedish history, the battle between the king Eric and the candidate for the throne of Svealand Styrbjorn Strong. In fact, this battle is the earliest event in Swedish history, being reflected both in written sources in Denmark and Ancient Iceland, and in the monuments of runic writing. Due to this, as well as a number of other circumstances, the battle of the two pagan pretenders became an important event for both Swedish and Danish historiography. At the same time, the approaches to the description and interpretation of the battle turned out to be different among Swedish and Danish historians and were equally influenced by various trends in both historical science and socio-political events. This article is the irst Russian-language work examining both the work of Scandinavian historians on the Battle of Fyrisvellir and the development of historical thought in the context of this battle. The author introduces into the Russian-language scientiic circulation a number of works by foreign researchers who, for one reason or another, remained outside the ield of vision of Russian-speaking Scandinavian studies. The concept of the battle on Fyrisvellir is proposed as a kind of «cornerstone» not so much of Swedish and Danish history, but of historiography in these countries. The events preceding the battle, as well as the historical context and landscape are described. The key theories regarding the battle are examined, both from the point of view of Swedish historians and from the point of view of Danish historians. The author provides an overview of their development over time. The characteristic of differences in perception is given, the reasons for both a different approach to the battle perception, and reasons on the one hand for the extinction, and on the other, for the unremitting interest in the event, are substantiated. The article is based on both classical and modern studies -Lund theorists of the hypercritical Weibull brothers' school, Swedish historians J. Lundquist, K.L. Thunberg, G. Dalbeck and others, as well as Danish historians.

On the basis of archival materials introduced into scientific circulation for the first time, the article examines the historical everyday life of German colonists in the context of socialist reforms in agriculture. For the analysis, four groups of German colonies were selected, which were among the Upper Don settlements (collective farms), which had not previously attracted the attention of researchers and were administratively located in the Tarasovsky region of the North Don district of the North Caucasian (Azov-Black Sea) region. These colonies did not have any special status, but due to their rather homogeneous ethnic composition, they constituted isolated German settlements, where mainly German was spoken in everyday life, and many local residents did not know Russian. The formation of collective farms markedly changed the usual life of the German colonists, their real economic situation worsened, and they began to receive more food and money aid from their historical homeland (das Vaterland) more actively. With the arrival of Adolf Hitler, parcels from Germany to the Soviet outback began to be perceived by the party- Soviet leadership as «counter-revolutionary actions» of the German population, which was considered by the Bolshevik nomenclature as a possible ifth column, which Hitler actually hoped for. However, the majority of the population of the German colonies lived with simple everyday worries about their daily bread. When, during the work of political departments in time of collectivization, in 1934, the state of affairs on the collective farms began to improve, the former colonists, and now collective farmers, were sincerely happy not only about the opportunity to receive payment in kind for their workdays, but also to ind ordinary things for their shock work in the form of boots, coats, cutting fabric, or replenish your personal subsidiary farm with a piglet, heifer, chickens. They were not averse to celebrating their successes in hard agricultural work with the whole colony with a good snack and Russian vodka. Among the Russian Germans in the Upper Don settlements there were many people who were ready to serve the Soviet regime with faith and truth.

The article focuses on the research on the Don ataman (Cossack chieftain) Matvey Platov by the Don historian of the early 20th century Evgraf Savelyev. One of the outstanding Don Cossacks' military commanders and administrators has always attracted the attention of various researchers. Recently his endeavors have been broadly recognized in various forms of historic memory. However, some aspects of his biography and their perception by the Cossacks are still insufficiently studied. One of the brightest examples of the formation of the image of Platov in Cossack historiography is the work of E.P. Saveliev Ataman M.I. Platov and Foundation of the Town of Novocherkassk (in 1805). It was published in Novocherkassk in 1906 and is a serious contribution to the study of the multifaceted activities of Ataman Platov. However, this work was practically ignored in Soviet and Russian historiography. Meanwhile, E. P. Savelyev is a typical representative of the intellectual environment of the Don Cossacks of the early twentieth century. Her views are widely demanded in the modern Cossack movement, which gives additional relevance to the study. E.P. Savelyev characterizes the milestones of the Platov's life - from an auspicious officer of the times of Catherine the Great to the hero of the Patriotic War of 1812. Certain notorious episodes of the Platov's biography (embezzlement accusation, coninement in Peter and Paul's Fortress) are described by E.P. Savelyev in his work but are considered a misunderstanding and the result of the court's scheming. E.P. Savelyev singles out administrative work and political flexibility of the ataman. He especially demonstrated these qualities when decision to found Novocherkassk was made. Such conclusions about M. I. Platov to a great extent correspond to his historical image. The scientiic novelty of the article consists in understanding the work of E. P. Savelyev «Ataman M. I. Platov and the foundation of Novocherkassk (in 1805)» as an insuficiently studied historiographic source in the context of analyzing the tradition of historiography of the early twentieth century.

The article deals with the commander of the Far Eastern Front, General I.R. Apanasenko, who made a signiicant contribution to the defense of the USSR in the Far East and ensuring victory in World War II. Being appointed commander of the front in January 1941, from the first days of his stay in the Far East, I.R. Apanasenko paid special attention to strengthening the defense capability of the region, increasing the combat readiness of troops to repel the enemy, which was very important during the Second World WWar. From the very first days of commanding the front, General I. Apanasenko paid great attention to the combat training of troops in conditions close to those of the front. The threat of a Japanese attack on the USSR increased signiicantly after the invasion of German troops into the territory of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1942. With the outbreak of World War II, troops had to be sent from the Far East to the west, while maintaining the combat readiness of the front. Sending out manned and fully secured military units, General Apanasenko took upon himself a huge responsibility, forming, on his own initiative, new divisions with the same numbers instead of departing ones. He made extensive use of misinformation, misleading the Japanese command, giving the appearance that regular military units continued to remain in place. The commander mobilized men up to 55 years old, removed prisoners from the camps and included them in the divisions being formed. As a result, the number of front troops not only did not decrease, but doubled. Not receiving weapons, ammunition, equipment, rations from the People's Commissariat of Defense and the General Staff, the front commander organized their production on the spot. The network of military state farms was expanded. The front became the base for the combat training of troops for the western fronts from among the conscripts sent from other territories to the Far Eastern Front. It was in 1941-1942 not only was the Japanese attack on the USSR prevented, but the foundations were laid for the preparation for military operations of the Soviet troops in the Far East in 1945.

The article deals with the complex problem of viri militares (military leaders for the most part) as a phenomenon of Roman ideological and social life. The relevance of the problem is due to its insuficient study with the obvious signiicance of its solution for understanding the state and political mechanisms of the early Roman Empire. In the conditions of the formation and development of the system of imperial autocracy, the commander's status remained for the carriers of republican traditions (which are still represented by representatives of the senatorial nobility) as one of the means of ensuring aristocratic identity. Meanwhile, the real content of the empire and the auspices for the highest magistrates in the era of the Principate is often replaced only by the appearance of full-fledged military leadership, now under the full control of the princeps. In this regard, in literary works, which are, in fact, the works of Roman historians, the expression vir militaris (viri militares -plural) and those close to it in meaning are a means of glorification in relation to the spokesmen of aristocratic views and a method of latent criticism of the imperial power. In the list of qualities attributed by the authors to the generals, allusions to the generals of the republican time are especially noticeable. On the other hand, the epigraphic data, analyzed in combination with the information contained in the literary-historical narrative, reveal signs of the community of commanders of the senatorial rank that apparently took shape with the beginning of the Principate. For the latter, it appears that military activity in the cursus honorum system (the standard senatorial career) was a kind of specialization. The рrinceps were sometimes forced to stimulate it, even despite the fact that some commanders fostered by the authorities could become a threat to the imperial autocracy. In the analyzed careers of representatives of the nobility, some regularities are found that show that most of those who eventually attained the status of governors of the militarized (imperial) provinces passed through the phases of vigintivirat (chiefly in the college of viokurs), laticlave tribunate, commanding a legion with the rank of imperial legate.

The article examines the electoral struggle of the Liberal and Conservative parties in Great Britain on the eve of the elections to the House of Commons in 1868. The features of the election campaign are shown. As a result of the electoral reform, the number of voters had been significantly increased at the expense of the working classes. Because of that, the old methods of competing for votes required a signiicant update. In fact, during these elections, they develop new tactics and methods of working with voters. The article analyzes the approaches of both parties to the working-class electorate. For that purposes in addition to research literature the article bases on various documents, including the mass media of that time. As a result, the author concludes that in 1868 the new voters followed the main political parties and did not pose a real threat to those in power.

The New Athos Monastery on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, which turns 145 in 2020, is an extraordinary phenomenon in the life of Orthodox Russia, which had a number of historical, geopolitical, spiritual and moral preconditions. In light of the revival of interest in the history of Russian monastery construction, the creation and activities of the monastery on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, it is relevant and deserves attention. An important reason for the creation of the Athos monastery in the Caucasus was the fact that the St. Panteleimon Monastery on Athos, despite its flourishing from the middle of the 19th century, in 1874 was under the threat of being ousted by the Greek government and clergy. In the monastery there were conlicts between the Greeks and Russian monks who lived in the same monastery and defended the conduct of services in their own language, as well as on other issues. The creation of the monastery by the Russian part of the monks of the Panteleimon Monastery was preceded by a long search for a suitable place for the founding of the monastery. Therefore, an appeal to the history of the development of ties between Russia and Athos, as the reason for the emergence of Russian monasticism, monastery building in Russia, the role of Athos in the fate of Russian Orthodoxy is of undoubted interest and is relatively little covered in historical literature. The New Athos Simon-Cananite Monastery on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus in Abkhazia was built since 1875 as a «reserve» abode of the Russian St. Panteleimon Monastery on Athos in case of the forced eviction of Russian monks from Athos. Its creation marked the beginning of the formation of a galaxy of monasteries on the Caucasian Athos. In each of the monasteries, monks opened schools for children and adults, taught literacy and the basics of the Orthodox faith, modern agriculture. The monasteries disseminated spiritual literature, the brethren painted icons, made crosses from wood, poured candles and other attributes, and also tirelessly engaged in agriculture, helping poor and large families. The educational and missionary activity of the New Athos Monastery was extensive and was not limited only to the borders of Russia. In the 21st century, Orthodox Christians should know and remember about these works of the modest, sometimes insufficiently known, but deserving study of their activities by the ministers of the Russian Orthodox Church and Russia - the founders and builders of New Athos and other monasteries in the Caucasus.

Over the last years the Republic of Turkey is more actively holding itself out as a regional leader. Using its advantageous geopolitical position at the junction of two civilizations as well as the imperial past Turkey is trying to expand its zone of influence by including the former Ottoman Empire territories into its foreign policy orbit by appealing to the common historical and cultural past and ideological values. One of the key strategies bringing on the country's attractive image creation which is aimed at the strengthening its influence on international relations is the Soft Power strategy. In this regard, it seems relevant to analyze the conceptual basis of Turkish "Soft Powefl' policy. Based on the analysis of the scientiic works of Russian and foreign researchers, as well as "Soft Power' theoretical constructions and factual material on the Turkish political leaders activities - Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, Turgut Ozal and Recep Taip Erdogan, the author presented three key points of view regarding the reasons for its formation and historical background. The author concluded that despite the prevailing point of view among foreign historians according to which the concept of "soft power' was irst fully implemented after the AKP headed by R.T. Erdogan, the foundations of modern state policy based on the idea of the historical, geopolitical and cultural uniqueness of Turkey were laid by Ataturk. They were later formalized in the course on European integration by T. Ozal. The submitted paper has a scholarly importance since the historical analysis was not presented in the Russian academic literature taking into account the complex multilevel factors that inluenced the choice of the political line in Turkey. In addition, the study of the historical context of Turkish "Soft Power' politics is also interesting from the point of view of understanding and identifying the specifics of its current stage. The author introduced new factual data into scientiic circulation included a signiicant layer of previously unexplored and not translated into Russian sources.

The article analyzes the formation of political parties in the 1990s in Russia. It is shown that after the CPSU left the political arena on its basis, various parties adhered to traditionalist (communist) ideology were created, and on the basis of the Democratic Party of Russia formed political organizations and movements mainly liberal. Centrists in the party system were the «third power» - the «party of power.» Against this background, in the 1990s, the regional branches of all-Russian political parties and movements were formed in Kabardino-Balkariya, which played a role in the political space of the region. The relevance of the stated theme is due to the fact that the transformation of the communist regime, accompanied by political and socio-economic transformations, has formed the specifics of the liberalization of Russian society. It was that it was the ruling communist and post-communist political elite that initiated reforms, played a key role in party building and tried to maintain control over political processes, including in Kabardino-Balcaria. The main sources of the study were archival materials collected at the Centre for Documentation of the Recent History of the Kabardino-Balkar Republic, which contain detailed data to examine the issues related to the formation and activities of regional ofices of federal political parties during the historical period. Information from archival statistics is supplemented by published information from the media. It is concluded that the party-management in Kabardino-Balkariya in the 1990s began later than at the federal level and was the result of general trends of Russian party building. It is significant that in the region with the advent of liberal-democratic parties, a certain party competition has begun. Lacking signiicant political resources and party building mechanisms, the regional branches of the federal parties of the CBD were formed as electoral headquarters during the period of elected companies and participated mainly in all-Russian events.

The fast-paced age of information technology more actively, more voluminously and desperately involves individuals in the world of uncontrolled data flow. Information today is becoming a determinant of the development of the subject. The article deals with the aggressive inluence of the information environment on the development of the consciousness of adolescents. Today, more and more often cognition during puberty is subordinated to the chaotic unsystematic aggressive inluence of sign systems that impoverish the reality awareness, destroy the objectivity of the world view, lead away from system analysis, form clip thinking and ultimately lead to the destruction of the process of comprehending reality and one's place in it (nihilism, deviations, delinquency, etc.). The mechanism of a conscious understanding of the social laws is revealed against the background of the goal-oriented rational participation of social institutions in the process of socialization. The pedocentric theory and teaching methodology, according to which the decisive and leading role of the teacher in the educational processes was reduced mainly to guiding students' self-activity and awakening their inquisitiveness, are criticized. Recommendations for leveling the trajectory of the maturation of the subject's legal consciousness in the process of accumulating social experience through a return to the origins of traditional pedagogy and legal support by state institutions are given

The article is devoted to the analysis of problems and the identiication of effective mechanisms for ensuring environmental safety in the conditions of the functioning of the common economic space of the EAEU member states. The need for the stable development of land and other natural resource, environmental protection relations, environmental law and order, the introduction of mechanisms for the harmonization or unification of the norms of law in the context of the desire of the member states of the Eurasian Economic Union to strengthen national economies and achieve the growth of their competitiveness on a global scale economic system. The progressive development of the Eurasian Economic Union and the need for the implementation of signiicant infrastructure and investment projects to implement the concept of sustainable development in the EAEU member states leads to the strengthening of integration processes aimed at ensuring environmental safety and eficient use of natural resources in this international organization. The legal mechanism for the implementation of such interaction for the EAEU states can be considered harmonization, which allows for the coordination of common approaches and concepts, joint development of legal principles and the development of joint solutions on problems that are urgent for all states. Legal problems of the development of the integration of legal regulation of environmental safety in the EAEU countries are determined by the lack of uniform approaches and existing regulatory legal acts on environmental safety, various forms, plurality, declarativeness and inconsistency of national legislation regulating environmental safety. The development and consolidation in the EAEU acts of the legal foundations of environmental safety will not only bring the legislation of the Union member states in this area to a new qualitative legal level, but also create the basis for effective cooperation between states, serve as an effective effective cooperation between states, and serve as an effective means of fulilling international obligations in the ield of environmental protection and rational use.

The article touches upon one of the urgent problems of modern society: the influence of information and communication technologies on social processes. The authors raise the question of the dependence of the level of digitalization of society and the level of corruption crime. The analysis of the degree of influence of modern ICT on the state and dynamics of corruption crime. The subject of the study was statistical data on the indicators of IT use in the world, data on digital literacy ratings and network readiness indices, statistics and reports on the state of crime, and corruption perception indices. The authors focus on the analysis of various aspects of digitalization, correlating with data on corruption crime. The methodological basis of the research is dialectical materialism and general scientiic methods of analysis, synthesis, and others. Formal legal, comparative legal and other legal methods, as well as the method of statistical analysis, were used as special ones. Based on the findings, the authors conclude that progress in the IT field is directly reflected in the state and dynamics of corruption crime, generating a demand in society for improving the means and methods used to combat corruption. The authors have developed an extensive systemic set of measures designed to promote anti-corruption. In conclusion, the article concludes that there is a possibility of a positive impact on corruption crime by modernizing methods of combating it through the use of modern IT tools. It is noted that the systematic implementation of the proposed set of measures, provided they are consistently implemented, will be the irst step towards combating corruption-related crime through information technology, however, achieving this goal is possible only if high-quality systemic digitalization is carried out throughout the country.

The article examines the current issues of legal regulation of the economic mechanism of environmental protection and rational use of natural resources in the member states of the EAEU, which includes various tools that have speciic features and forms of implementation in each member country. The article analyzes the norms of the legislation of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Armenia, regulating the establishment of both tax and non-tax payments for the use of natural resources and the provision of various types of impacts on the natural environment. The legal nature of payment for negative impact on the environment, environmental tax, emissions into the environment is considered in detail. The author gives an assessment of the effectiveness of these legal instruments for the purposes of maintaining environmental safety and sustainable use of natural resources. Various approaches to the implementation of the environmental function of states are analyzed in the article, this function requires a competent combination of administrative, economic and market mechanisms, in order to mitigate the impact on the economy with increasing costs for achieving the accepted standards of environmental quality and ensuring the rational use of natural resources. The author advocates the need for harmonization environmental legislation, speciically in terms of creating environmental funds by all EAEU member states, which will allow implementing the compensatory function of environmental payments, which is expressed in their correlation with the amount of harm caused to the environment, by accumulating monetary assets in funds from various sources and their purposeful spending on environmentally signiicant activities. It is proposed to adopt regulatory legal acts at the level of the EAEU, the purpose of which would be the regulation of relations concerning environmental management and environmental protection, including inancing relations. This is especially relevant, taking into consideration the environmental challenges facing the world community, and the recent increase in man-made disasters. In addition to the regulatory framework, it is necessary to create supranational institutions and mechanisms for inancing the environmental sphere within the framework of the EAEU.

Prevention and suppression of tort, delinquency and crime among adolescents is the most important national task of any state. Instability in the development of society, socio-economic, political / geopolitical, cultural changes affect the value orientations of young people, their personal attitudes and sometimes provoke a «drift» of the teenager's personality into an unfavorable environment. Today, the negative influence of the media, social networks, computer network games especially determines the deviant behavior of adolescents. The article presents an analysis of statistical data on juvenile delinquency and delinquency in Russia and the Stavropol Territory, which suggests that the effectiveness of regulatory and institutional support for adolescents in the Stavropol Territory is at a high level. The Stavropol Territory forms its regulatory and institutional framework on the basis of legislative acts of the Russian Federation regulating activities to prevent child neglect and juvenile delinquency, bases regional legislation on the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized principles and norms of international law. ... An analysis of the normative and institutional system for the prevention of deviant behavior among minors both in Russia and in the Stavropol Territory revealed a wide interdepartmental community that functions effectively and contributes to the formation of the infrastructure of other social services, new type institutions that provide social services to families and adolescents, which, of course, , creates conditions for the full development of the personality of adolescents.

The article is devoted to the problem of debt forgiveness as a legal fact. It is noted that in connection with debt forgiveness, neither legislation nor civil doctrine properly distinguish between the concepts of «termination of a claim» and «termination of an obligation». A literal interpretation of the debt forgiveness provisions would mean that in a bilateral obligation, each of the parties would at any time can declare that it relieves the other of its obligations, and thus terminate not only its right of claim, but also the obligation as a whole, including its own obligations together with the corresponding rights of the counterparty. A systematic interpretation of clause 1 of article 415 of the civil code of the Russian Federation in the context of other norms of the law of obligations leads to the conclusion that debt forgiveness is a legal fact that terminates an obligation only if the creditor itself does not bear any obligations to the debtor. However, under this interpretation, the participants in the obligation are in an unequal position: the right to forgive the debt is not held by both parties, but only by the one who initially had no obligations, or the one who irst performed them. Debt forgiveness is a unilateral expression of will in which notiication on the one hand is a suficient reason for termination of the legal relationship, but this legal effect can be blocked by a counter-unilateral objection of the other party.

The relevance of the topic is explained by the active development of a new type of entrepreneurship - security activities and, as a consequence, its actual impact on participants in civil turnover. The activity under study has constitutional, civil, socioeconomic, law enforcement and other aspects that directly affect the contract for the provision of security services, which is a legal fact of the said activity. As an element of the research methodology, it is noted that the legal regulation of security activities depends on the state of public relations at certain stages of state development. The modern transformation of public-law security activity into a type of entrepreneurship requires the study of the legal and factual properties of the contract for the provision of security services, through which this activity is a process of implementation and protection of civil rights. Conducting such research is the purpose of the publication. The author's idea is aimed at setting and solving problems to identify the initial prerequisites for achieving the goal - the legal nature of entrepreneurial security activities, signs and properties of the contract as a legal fact of its occurrence and determining its place in the classification system of such facts. In the course of the study, new scientiic results were obtained in the ield under study. In particular, it is argued that the legal and factual properties of the contract are «legality», «validity» and focus on the emergence, development and termination of relations of security activities. It is concluded that the legal and factual properties of the contract are manifested in the recognition of its volitional positive lawful action, which is performed in the form of a legal act that affects the dynamics of the relevant relations. The features of the studied properties of the contract are established, which are manifested in its ability to act in civil circulation as a legal fact of title, law-changing and law-breaking.

The article examines the problem of the comic in the broad context of a word play - from methodological culturological interpretation in various spheres of human activity to its speciic implementation in a newspaper political caricature. The comic is characterized as a strategy, a hyperonym (generic concept) for the implementation of irony, wit, humor, satire, sarcasm, cynicism as a set of tactics. The object of the research is the characteristics of the actualization of the comic in the creolized text. The subject is verbal and non-verbal means of forming a comic in the genre of political cartoons, identiied in the process of analyzing empirical material in the French press on the topic «Politics». The creolized text in the unity of the iconic (humorous drawing of a political nature) and verbal (comment under the drawing) codes is presented as a persuasive form of political communication. A caricature, consisting of two elements (a grotesque aimed at enlarging human vices and shortcomings, and an allusion that creates a context for placing an object of ridicule in it), as one of the most understandable and accessible genres, contributes to an effective and easy impact on the mass addressee. The novelty of the research is the analysis of the genre of political caricature as a special form of its organization, expressed in the dialogism of the comic in various aspects. As a conclusion, the author afirms the need for a differentiated understanding of dialogism in political newspaper communication, taking into account its compositional code speciicity, expressed in a combination of non-verbal and verbal codes. In this process, the component "participants" of the discourse is signiicant, which forms the corresponding vector of development of dialogism in political caricature. As a result of the analysis, various types of dialogism are named, from the point of view of various aspects of implementation - functional, semiotic, linguistic. The functional aspect is determined by the basic strategy (motivation, impact, persuasion) aimed at expressing the communicative situation of involvement. The semiotic plane is actualized symbolically, through a «dialogue» between non-verbal and verbal codes; in the case of asymmetry - the absence of a verbal component, non- verbal intracode differentiation is observed. The linguistic aspect is normatively determined by the implementation of the verbal component in various forms (normative dialogue, quasi-dialogue, one-way replication). Thus, a conclusion is made about the intra-aspect speciic actualization of the types of dialogism.

The purpose of the article is to identify the features of the semantic structure of evaluative-characterizing nouns, in the signiicative-denotative component of the direct meaning of which there is a positive assessment. Based on the collected material, the authors identify two igurative meanings of such nouns: a) an evaluative-descriptive meaning (intermediate between direct and proper evaluative), b) an independent evaluative value, с) and the homonymous interjection that arose on their basis, as well as show the difference in the composition of markers that distinguish them. The authors attribute the evaluative-descriptive meaning, which is characterized by the coexistence of two main components: the positive evaluative as a vertex and the descriptive as an accompanying one, to semantic ambiguity as a kind of polysemicity, language or speech. Independent evaluative value, which has one main semantic component-pragmatic (emotional, emotional-aesthetic, emotional-ethical meliorative assessment), the authors refer to the classical polysemicity, which is the result of regular semantic development according to common language models of transfer (metaphorical, metonymic, associative). The limit of the development of the semantic structure of the studied evaluative-characterizing nouns is its destruction and the appearance of homonymous interjections that express emotion. In a signiicant number of texts of the modern Russian language the authors demonstrate mismatched markers highlighted their semantic phenomena: a) the use of the name in any grammatical form - use the name only in the form of the nominative case; b) the presence of lexical compatibility, enhancing the assessment, - the availability of lexical compatibility limiting and specifying the nature, с) the use of tokens in all possible for the name of the syntactic roles - the use of the token only in the predicate function, d) implementation of the evaluation function only - simultaneous presence of the nominative function - expression of emotion only. In general, the material studied allows the authors to conclude that the emotional lexicon of the modern Russian language is expanding and changing in accordance with the communicative needs of a native speaker

The relevance of the study of texts of court decisions in the modern world is due to both the social demand for the development of legal linguistic issues, and the need to accumulate, observe and generalize the research material of legal texts. Based on the decisions of the Supreme courts of the countries of the Anglo-Saxon legal system, the article analyzes the nature of implementation in the texts of court decisions of such plans for the structural organization of the text as segmentation and architectonics. Visual-spatial segmentation and fixed location of text components are important principles for organizing the text of a court decision. In the result of the analysis the author comes to the conclusion about the existence of universal and specific to different countries of Anglo-Saxon legal system implementation options considered principles that allow to organize and direct perception by a recipient of information that is essential to the accuracy, correctness, and unambiguity of interpretation of the content of such important documents as court decision. These parameters can include both generally accepted (paragraphs, text italics, numbering) and unique (selection of keywords as independent parts, summary of the content of the decision, content of paragraphs, list of references to sources of law (according to the traditional hierarchy of sources of the Anglo-Saxon legal system): precedents, statutes and normative documents, doctrinal sources). The structure of the considered court decisions corresponds to the classical three-part structure of the court decision, which consists of successive introductory, descriptive-motivational and resolute parts. The basic details of each of the parts are preserved in the reviewed court decisions, however, the nature of their location does not have a ixed framework. The features of the implementation of the principles identiied in the analysis allow the recipient to quickly navigate the structure and content of the court decision, which is of great value, taking into account the large array of case law.

The article explores the realia in the iconic work of domestic and world literature in the translation aspect. Based on the presentation of the main integrative provisions of interdisciplinary humanitarian knowledge, translation theory is considered as part of the language theory, and the translation process is positioned as a foreign cultural interpretation. In this regard, linguaculturology and philological hermeneutics are called as signiicant linguistic and philological directions in the ield of language theory. The paper summarizes the frequency types of realia and methods of their implementation in a foreign interpretation. The problem of actualization of realia is characterized in three aspects: 1) when broadcasting from SL to TL by a professional translator; 2) in a comparative study of the results of foreign cultural interpretation; 3) in the predicted perception of the reaction of the English-speaking reader, interested in the work of a foreign author who is signiicant in the world literature. In the analyzed work, a high concentration of the use of various types of realia, actualizing objectivity, time, place, is noted. Due to the complexity of the translation of the realia of the original work - Boris Pasternak's novel "Doctor Zhivago", their foreign cultural interpretation is carried out using various means -a description, less often an appraisal, which facilitates the perception of the text by an English-speaking addressee, at the same time, losing linguistic and cultural information; as well as the omission of superphrase unities, which are important for understanding the author's intent, is an unacceptable translation strategy, indicating a hopeless interpretation situation. It is shown that transcription, tracing, and, what is very important, comments given in footnotes are adaptive means for translating the original text in the analyzed novel. It is concluded that the nature of the translation techniques used indicates the linguistic and cultural richness of the source text, in which realities occupy the position of a discourse-forming marker. The result of a comparative analysis of two translations of the novel reveals the reasons for the discrepancies in the source text in the interpretation of realities: the inclusion of cognitive experience in two collective author versions of the translation does not provide the so-called objective interpretation.